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What is Cryogenics?

Cryogenics is the production of and behavior of materials at very low temperatures. Ultra-cold temperatures change the chemical properties of materials, which provide an interesting area of study for researchers who wish to examine the materials as they transition from gas to liquid to a solid state. These studies have lead to advances in not only our understanding of different materials, but the creation of entirely new technologies and industries.

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The temperature of any material is the measure of the energy that it contains. Rapidly moving molecules have a higher temperature than slower moving molecules.

For example, while water transforms from a liquid to a solid at 32° F (0° C), cryogenic temperatures range much lower; from -150°C to -273° C. The temperature -273° C is the absolute lowest that can be achieved. At this temperature the actions of all molecules stop, causing the molecules to be at the lowest possible state of energy.

Liquid gases at or below -150° C can be used to freeze other materials. Once a gas begins to liquefy, the environment is considered a cryogenic one. The most common gases that are turned to liquid for cryogenics are oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and helium.

History of Cryogenics

The word cryogenics comes from the Greek word “kyros,” which means cold. This combined with the abbreviated English word “to generate” make the word we know as cryogenics.

Temperatures that are very cold are not measured in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius, but in Kelvins. Kelvins use the unit symbol K. It is named after Baron Kelvin who believed that at very low temperatures a new scale was needed that was not measured by the material state change of water like Fahrenheit or Celsius. Zero degrees Kelvin (0 K) is the theoretically coldest possible temperature.

In 1877 Rasul Pictet and Louis Cailletet liquefied oxygen for the first time, both using different methods for the process. Eventually a third method of liquefying oxygen was discovered, and at this point in history oxygen was able to be liquefied at 90 K. Soon after, liquid nitrogen was achieved at 77 K. Scientists all over the world began competing to lower the temperature of matter to absolute zero.

The next breakthrough came in 1898 when James DeWar liquefied hydrogen at 20 K. This presented a new problem to researchers, as 20 K is also at a boiling temperature. However, this presented a further issue on how to handle and store gases at such temperatures. Hence the creation of DeWar flasks, which are used to store gases today.

The last major advance in the cryogenics industry came in 1908 when the physicist Heike Kamerling Onnes liquefied Helium at 4.2 K and then 3.2 K. The advances in cryogenics following this development have been much smaller because it is thermodynamic law that you can approach absolute zero, but never actually reach it. Technology has advanced much more since this last major discovery, and we can now freeze materials within very small distances from absolute zero, yet scientists still have not been able to break thermodynamic law where every particle has zero energy.

What Is Cryogenics Used For?

Cryogenics is used in a variety of applications. It can be used to produce cryogenic fields for rockets, in MRI machines that use liquid helium and require cryogenic cooling, storing large quantities of food, special effects fog, recycling, freezing blood and tissue samples, and even cooling superconductors.

Applications and uses:

Cryosurgery. A type of surgery that uses cryogenic temperatures to eliminate unwanted tissue or tumors. Historically, cryosurgery has been used to treat a variety of diseases, most commonly, benign and malignant skin conditions. This type of surgery is effective because it works by using the freezing temperatures on cells that need to be removed from the body. Ice crystals begin to form on the cells and ultimately tear them apart.

Cryoelectronics. The ultra-frozen temperatures that cryogenic fluids can provide offer the ability for electrons in materials to move freely with little resistance. This is of great benefit for superconductors and in spacecraft design. For example, oxygen and hydrogen when stored as cryogenic fluids are highly advantageous sources that can be used to power space rockets.

Cryobiology. The study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms. There are six major areas of cryobiology:

• The study of cold-adaptation of microorganisms, plants, animals and vertebrates
• Cryopreservation of cell tissues and embryos used in invitro fertilization
• Preservation of organs
• Lyophilization, the freeze-drying of pharmaceuticals
• Cryosurgery falls under this category
• Supercooling as applied to biological systems

Food Preservation. To preserve packaged foods such as produce, the food items can be sprayed with liquid nitrogen to absorb the heat within the produce. Eventually, the nitrogen evaporates before the food is consumed. With this application of cryogenics, foods can be kept preserved longer without any chemical threat to human consumption.

Transportation of Gases. Cryogenics is also used to transport gases that are not typically cryogenic. For example, using cryotechnology, gases can be transformed into liquids to make them easier to transport from one place to another. Take natural gas (LNG) which is a combination of ethane, methane and other gases. When these gases become liquefied, they take up far less space than if they remained gaseous. Therefore, transportation expenses become lower and the process becomes much easier.

Cryotherapy. This is when the body is exposed to extremely cold temperatures. The most common use of this application is the new trend of cryospas. In these areas, people can stand in a cryosauna filled with cryogenic fluids for several minutes. Studies have shown that this treatment touts many benefits to the body, such as reducing inflammation, increasing energy, managing pain, and even can boost metabolism, amongst other claims. Research on cryotherapy is still very new, and benefits have not been fully researched or understood.

Cryonics. The cryo-preservation of animals and humans with the hope that one day they may be able to be resuscitated in the future. However many, if not most, scientists are dubious of the claims.

What's Next for Cryogenics?

As technology rapidly evolves areas of cryogenics will continue to develop and eventually expand to more applications. While we can’t predict what developments will come next, what we do know is that safety around cryogenic fluids is a must, no matter which direction the research will progress. It is important that all applications handling, studying and using cryogenic liquids use the proper safety precautions and gas level monitors and are able to ensure accurate monitoring of gas concentrations.

Learn more about cryogenic safety here.

References

The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena is a science fictionfirst-person action video game for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360^[1] and Mac OS X.^[2] The game is a sequel to The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay, which was remade and included along with the Assault on Dark Athena campaign.^[3] The game was released on April 7, 2009.^[4] A demo was released on Xbox Live on March 4, 2009, with a PlayStation Network release following on March 12, 2009.^[5] Virtual Programming released the Mac OS X version on April 16, 2010 as a download through Deliver2Mac.com and other digital distribution web sites.^[6]

The game was developed by Starbreeze Studios and published by Atari. According to Ian Stevens, Head of Production at Tigon Studios, the decision to do a remake was because Microsoft could not make the Xbox 360 backward compatible with Escape from Butcher Bay, and because they wanted to get the Escape story to a larger audience before progressing further.^[7]

Dark Athena has improved graphics and artificial intelligence (AI) from Butcher Bay along with the addition of a multiplayer mode. The single player mode has also been expanded to include Riddick escaping onto a mercenary ship called Dark Athena. Vin Diesel, the voice and likeness of the title character, was involved in the production of Assault on Dark Athena.

Plot[edit]

The game picks up where Escape from Butcher Bay left off. Richard B. Riddick is a dangerous space criminal who can see in the dark. Johns, the man who originally took Riddick to the Butcher Bay prison for a bounty, helped him escape to avoid becoming a prisoner himself. On their ship together in a cryogenic sleep, they are dragged unwillingly into the Dark Athena, a gigantic mercenary vessel run by Gale Revas (voiced by Michelle Forbes) and her second in command, Spinner. Riddick avoids capture as Revas and her men take Johns away. Using the same stealth tactics as he did in Butcher Bay, Riddick sneaks and hides throughout the ship seeking to escape, killing the guards and mercenaries he encounters along the way. Many of the guards are automated drones that are human bodies with implanted machine parts, controlled remotely from within the ship.

He meets with a little girl named Lynn who is hiding from the guards in the air vent systems. Riddick makes his way to the prison cells and finds several people captured, including the former Captain of the Dark Athena before Revas took control. There he meets Lynn's mother, Ellen Silverman. She offers to make Riddick the tools he needs to escape through the air vents if he can get the right parts. She also asks to find Lynn because she is concerned for her safety. Another prisoner named Dacher (voiced by Lance Henriksen) offers his technical skills to help Riddick escape on a ship and unlock doors for him if Riddick can find him a com link. He agrees and finds the com link for Dacher and the parts for Silverman. Having again met with Lynn, Silverman keeps her word and makes him the tool he needs. Riddick moves on and is in contact with Dacher via video communication at computer terminals on the ship. Riddick frees the prisoners but most are killed, including Lynn's mother Silverman. Revas kills Dacher as he prepares the ship for their escape. Riddick finally meets Revas face to face. As they fight, he wounds her severely and she is thought to be dead. As he is preparing an escape pod to take off, Lynn is pounding on the door begging to take her with him. Revas, who is still alive as Riddick's pod takes off, fires a missile that hits the pod, causing it to crash on the planet Aguerra Prime below.

Riddick wakes up on the shore of a beach and he makes his way into an abandoned city. The planet is under siege from Revas' troops who are capturing civilians and harvesting their bodies to use for their drones. Riddick realizes his only way off the planet is to get back on the Dark Athena again. He makes his way through the city and back to the port where the Athena is docked. Spinner attacks Riddick in a robotic mech suit but is defeated. He gets back onto the Dark Athena and meets Lynn again. She tells Riddick her mother taught her how to make the drones turn on Revas' crew and attack them instead. Fighting ensues on the ship between the drones and the mercenaries. He makes his way up the ship and Riddick meets with Revas again, who is in a suit of armor with heavy weapons. He defeats her by pushing her into an elevator shaft and she falls to her death. Lynn meets up with him and they are seen going into the elevator. She asks him if Revas is coming back, and Riddick answers 'When I say goodbye, it's forever.' Then the credits roll.

Development[edit]

The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena was originally announced on May 22, 2007 as a remake of Escape from Butcher Bay with Assault on Dark Athena serving as a 'bonus chapter'.^[8] On July 10, 2008, The merger between Vivendi Games, the game's publisher and Activision had been complete and on July 29, 2008, the newly formed Activision Blizzard had announced that The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena along with eight other Vivendi Games titles that were in development had been dropped, putting the future of the game into question.^[9] However, on September 24, 2008, StarBreeze Studios confirmed that The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena was nearing completion and were in the process of looking for a publisher to publish the game.^[10] In October 2008 Infogrames, the parent company of Atari, announced they had picked up the publishing rights to Riddick and Ghostbusters: The Video Game.^[11] While the fate of Riddick was up in the air, Starbreeze reportedly kept working,^[12] and generated enough content by December 2008 to make Dark Athena, for all intents and purposes, a sequel to their earlier work.^[3]

Release[edit]

On release, the PC version used the Tagèscopy protection system. After activating the game for a third time, Tagès would start a 30-day timer. After 30 days, it enabled another activation, back up to 3 total activations.^[13] The version available on GOG.com came without this copy protection.^[14] The GOG version of the game was removed in March 2017.^[15]

Reception[edit]

The game received positive reviews, citing voice acting and the use of shadows as its strongest point. GameSpot praised the game for its voice acting and stated that 'You may not hear better voice acting all year: It's that good.' However, the game lost favour in AI and multiplayer.^[19]1UP.com criticized the game for having very poor AI, citing that the player can be spotted even if he is not directly seen by the guards. Simply firing or exposing yourself will attract the enemy, regardless of whether they can see you or not. 1UP also pointed out that enemy AI will move away from the player's fire even if the attack is from behind.^[20]

Despite the criticism of the multiplayer, Gaming-Age praised the game's 'Pitch Black' mode, citing that 'Pitch Black, though, is easily the best aspect about the multiplayer.' ^[21]Game Informer said the game was better than Escape from Butcher Bay, the first game. They also praised the voice acting, stating that 'Diesel's gravelly voice will rattle your living room when gunfire and explosions calm down.' Hyper's Daniel Wilks commends the game as 'an effortless combination of stealth and action' but criticises it for the 'HD facelift' and 'the lip synching is terrible'.^[22]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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1. ^'Game Platform Information'. Starbreeze Studios. Archived from the original on 2012-03-25. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
2. ^Cruse, Cord (16 April 2010). 'The Chronicles Of Riddick Coming To Macs Today'. Inside Mac Games. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
3. ^ ^abHollister, Sean (December 2, 2008). 'Riddick: Dark Athena is Remake No More'. GameCyte. Archived from the original on March 25, 2012. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
4. ^'Atari dates Riddick'. Eurogamer. Retrieved 2009-02-23.
5. ^'Riddick demo on Xbox Live'. Eurogamer. 2009-03-04. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
6. ^Games (2010-04-16). 'The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena Hits Deliver2Mac Games'. The Mac Observer. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
7. ^Dunham, Jeremy (May 25, 2007). 'Riddick on the Record'. IGN. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
8. ^'News: The Chronicles Of Riddick: Assault On Dark Athena Announced'. GamersHell.com. 2007-05-22. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
9. ^Pattison, Narayan (July 7, 2008). 'Activision Drops Several Vivendi Games'. IGN. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
10. ^'Dark Athena 'Just About Done' - News at Gamespot'. Gamespot. October 31, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
11. ^'Atari Picks Up Riddick'. Kotaku. October 31, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
12. ^Nelson, Randy (December 2, 2008). 'Riddick: Dark Athena coming early '09, features new 10-hour campaign'. Joystiq. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
13. ^'Steam Powered copy protection'.
14. ^'Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena'. GOG.com. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. DRM-FREE. No activation or online connection required to play
15. ^GOG.com team. 'Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena - Removal'. GOG forum. unfortunately, Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena will be leaving the GOG.com catalog
16. ^'Review: Chronicles Of Riddick: Assault On Dark Athena - Edge Magazine'. Next-gen.biz. 2009-04-16. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
17. ^Kim, Tae K. (June 2009). 'The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena for Xbox 360/PS3'. GamePro. GamePro Media. 21 (6): 81. ISSN1042-8658. OCLC19231826. Archived from the original on 2009-04-11. Retrieved 2009-06-14.
18. ^'The Chronicles Of Riddick: Assault On Dark Athena Video Game, Review HD Video Clip Game Trailers & Videos'. GameTrailers.com. 2009-04-07. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
19. ^'The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena Review, The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena Xbox 360 Review'. GameSpot.com. 2009-04-07. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
20. ^Pfister, Andrew. 'Riddick: Dark Athena Review for 360, PS3, PC from'. 1UP.com. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
21. ^'Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena Review (Xbox 360, PS3)'. Gaming Age. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
22. ^Wilks, Daniel (April 2009). 'Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena'. Hyper. Next Media (187): 50, 51. ISSN1320-7458.

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External links[edit]

• The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena at MobyGames
• The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena at IMDb

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